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The Importance of Indigenous Knowledge


Introduction

Tukano

Kuna

Iñupiat

References

Resources

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Introduction

As the Earth's population continues to grow, more resources are demanded. A desire for material goods also continues to be a main goal for people, and these two elements combined place an increased pressure on Mother Earth. The 21st century is inevitable, and as it rapidly approaches, there is constant talk of bigger and better things. Many people are beginning to posses the Western view of affluence, and more attention is focused on how to obtain the greatest amount of resources without thought for how extraction will impact the future. It is understandable that an increase in population is demanding more commodities, but with careful management of our natural resources, a sustainable balance can be achieved.

Indigenous groups all over the world have adapted cultural belief systems that demonstrate an immense knowledge and respect for the Earth. These systems contain rules that define how the environment should be treated. Rituals, ceremonies and prohibitions all regulate the use of natural resources and accomplish the goals of resource management and a balanced ecosystem. Understanding this knowledge and using it to solve environmental problems is incumbant on us.

Time is of the essence as more native groups are introduced to modern things that otherwise would have no place in their lives, attitudes change and the desire for better things is continual. In contrast to Western societies, native societies have fewer wants and needs. As colonization continues, Western views are being implanted into many native societies and is affecting their traditional life style. Take the Amazon for example. The lush tropical rainforests have been of great curiosity to explorers for many centuries. Traditional societies living close to nature for thousands of years were discovered, and cultural heritage destroyed either because of death by foreign disease or assimilation into mainstream society. Gradually through assimilation traditional practices and respect for the Earth lessen. Ironically, as we become more interested in traditional belief systems, the youngsters of many indigenous groups are becoming disinterested in their native culture. Outside influence provides them with a negative view of their culture, and they believe it is a waste of time to learn about traditional practices. Things are changing, and some indigenous societies are keeping their cultural autonomy intact despite these outside influences.

Smithsonian scientists researching environmental problems are discovering ways the damage, to the Earth, that has and is being done can be restored and regulated. Traditional knowledge of the Earth is based on thousands of years experience and can not be left out of the formula for environmental management. There is so much we can learn from indigenous peoples and as scientists devise plans for regulation and restoration, traditional knowledge provides guidance and solutions.

The Tukano Indians are one of nine tribes belonging to the Eastern Tukanoan linguistic group. Found in the Colombian northwest Amazon in South America, they inhabit a large area on the Vaupés River, a major tributary of the Río Negro. The Tukano were the last of the Eastern Tukanoan linguistic groups to arrive in the region. It is not known when they arrived, but they are an aboriginal group of the South American Amazon.  

The Vaupés region is classified as a flooded forest. Game animals, fruits, nuts, insects, and other resources are not evenly distributed, and availability shifts. The Vaupés river is also limited in its productivity. It is classified as a blackwater system and is very infertile. Living in these conditions requires a highly adaptive society for survival. Like many tropical societies, the Tukano Indians developed a unique cultural belief system that allowed them to be resource managers and maintain a balanced ecosystem.

The Tukano Indians believe the creator of the Universe is the Sun-Father. The Sun-Father created a limited number of animals and plants, giving to each species a set of rules on how they were to live and multiply. He placed them under the constant care of specific spirit-beings who guard them and protect them against potential abusers. These spirit-beings represent him, and serve as intermediaries between him and the earth. He gave to these spirit-beings the duty of caring for, and protecting his creation, as well as, promoting the fertility of life. It is the energy of the sun, the Sun-Father, that allows for growth of plants, fruit, and the reproduction of animals and mankind. There is only a limited amount of this energy, and it is very important to the maintenance of equilibrium. This energy comprises a circuit that flows continuously between man and animal, society and nature. Since the quantity of energy is restricted, man may only remove what he needs under certain conditions and must convert his "borrowed" energy into an essence that can be reincorporated into the circuit. Man and animal thus compliment each other and replenish each other continually. In order to maintain a stable balance of input and output, adaptive rules were established and respected by every member of Tukano society. If these rules were not respected, great harm fell upon he who defied. The Sun-Father also created the principles of good and evil, so mankind would be punished when these customs of tradition were broken. To complete his divine creation, the Sun-Father assigned to the Universe a restricted, circular stretch of land, limited on all sides by permanent landmarks.

The Tukano Universe is a limited system with finite resources. Their neighbors restrict the Tukanos in their boundaries. Tukanos rely upon their cultural beliefs and traditional skills for exploiting local resources. The goal of Tukano activities and attitudes was the biological and cultural continuity of their society. To achieve this goal, Tukanos, through time, classified each animal and plant species in their area, recognized behavior, seasonal occurrence, feeding habits and relationships between species. They observed a system of strict reciprocity in all relationships that were established in the environment. Unlike Westerners, Tukanos had no interest in exploiting the environment for the possibility of obtaining more food or raw-materials than was actually needed. This maintained biotic equilibrium. Tukanos believed they must bring themselves into harmony with nature in order to survive. This was achieved by undergoing periods of preparation before one was allowed to hunt game, fish, or gather necessary resources, even wood, fiber and clay. In this respect, one could not go hunting, fishing or gathering anytime one needed something. These resources could only be obtained by permits which came from the spirit-owners of the resources. As these rules were followed by all members of Tukano society, they survived in a restricted environment whose finite resources were easily depleted.

The Tukano obtain most of their protein from fishing in the Vaupés river. The river, classified as a blackwater system, only supports minimal life because of its nutrient-deficiency. It is also damaging to life because of the high levels of acids and metals. The Tukano have great knowledge of their environment and have preserved the natural vegetation of the forests for fisheries maintenance instead of clearing the land for agriculture. This has provided them with long-term economic benefits. Soil found in flooded forest areas and on riverbanks of blackwater rivers are very poor. Clearing the land for agricultural purposes would benefit no one. Fish survive by feeding on debris from plant and animal life that fall into the river from the forest and also from forest substances in areas adjacent to the river that surface during the annual floods. As these substances fall into the river, nutrients are released. This enriches the river and helps support life. In this sense fish production in the flooded forest have greater potential than agricultural production in cleared blackwater floodplains. Tukano beliefs prohibit the deforestation of riverbanks because the river belongs to the fish not humans. Taboos and the concept of reciprocity prevent over-fishing and is observed by all Tukano.

The Vaupés region could provide shelter from many outside influences for a longer period because of its location, but isolation did not last very long, and colonization soon made its way into the region. Missionaries arrived in the late 19th, early 20th century to the Vaupés region. They succeeded in acculturating the Tukano, and as a result most Tukano now wear Western clothing and practice Catholicism. Their culture, and traditions virtually gone. Outside influence has also pushed the trend of clearing forest for development purposes. This has especially damaging effects in the flooded forest region. Nutrients from leaf fall and other debris in the forest provides nutrients for the soil and river. Annual flooding of the cleared forest will not improve the soils in the blackwater rivers or agricultural productivity. It is the forest that enriches the river. Traditional forest maintenance and restricted fish harvesting have allowed the Tukano to make an unproductive system relatively productive, but without traditional values and practices, what is the fate of the Amazon?

Many other native Amazonian groups have been decultured, and are now partaking in the cash-economy. Other groups, still living traditionally, have been granted land ownership and have control over tropical deforestation. Traditional knowledge provides a basis for understanding the environment. Failure to observe this knowledge leads to failed subsistence practices and in some cases large amounts of tropical deforestation. Proper management and preservation of tropical rainforests will save millions of species of flora and fauna that may ultimatley be the key to saving our own lives .

The presence of the Spanish, in the early 16th century, drove many Kuna deep into the forests, away from the mainland of Panama, attempting to escape epidemics of recently introduced diseases, coercion into the mines and extermination by the Spanish. The 17th and 18th centuries brought massive trading by pirates and other traders. After the era of piracy, around the early 19th century, the Kuna started transferring their villages from the mainland to the Atlantic Coast which was free of insects and disease. The Kuna presently live on the San Blas Archipelago. The area extends along the Atlantic Coast from the region of Cartí in the west, to nearly the Colombian border-- about 320 thousand hectares. San Blas also encompasses numerous coral islands adjacent to the mainland. San Blas is also referred to Kuna Yala and in 1953 it was recognized by the Panamanian government as a self-governing region.

The Kuna are a society with a high degree of social and political organization and their geographic isolation is crucial to maintaining cultural and political autonomy. Over the years the Kuna have been protecting their natural resources and cultural heritage from increased outside pressures and influence, and have had remarkable success. They have established control over their land, resources, and consequently have been able to save the land from further destruction by non-Kuna farmers, ranchers and settlers. With the influence of Western civilization, many hardships were experienced, but Kuna traditional beliefs remained.

The Kuna world is a dual world. It contains the "world of spirit" and the "world of subsistence." The world of spirit surrounds and resides inside every material thing-- the world of subsistence. It underlies the world of subsistence and gives it force. The spirits respect those who follow the rules which are recorded and reinforced by tradition. The Kuna respect "spirit sanctuaries" where these spirits dwell. These sanctuaries are usually on what would be quality agricultural land that has not been cleared. If the sanctuaries are violated, the spirits rise up in rage and inflict harm on the community. According to legend, the Earth is the body of the Great Mother. The Great Father joined in a sexual union with the Great Mother and she gave birth to all plants, animals and humans. She is the source of all life, and it is her body who continuously regenerates the planet with life, and helps the Kuna stay in equilibrium. The Great Mother instructed certain beings of their duties. Medicinal plants were informed on their role in curing illnesses, certain animals told they were to be used by Kuna for food, and hardwood trees instructed for use as building materials. The trees renew their energy by drinking water through their roots. The Great Mother drinks the sap produced by the trees, and this is how she strengthens herself. Trees are Kuna life; they protect them, provide medicine for illnesses, and fruit for the animals. If the land were exploited, the trees would die and production diminish. There would be no culture, no soul. Kuna are taught early in life to take care of Mother Earth, not abuse it. They personalize every element of nature by treating it as if it were human, with respect, flattery, and compromise.

The Kuna are primarily farmers and fisherman. They practice slash-and-burn horticulture and obtain most of their animal protein from fishing in the ocean. The hunting of game and gathering of wild foods are secondary in their diet. The slash-and burn horticulture is more extensive than intensive, and has minimal impact on the environment. The Kuna plant trees around their farm plots to mark limits, and within the plots to mark among crops. The trees serve as protection from the wind, and also protects the crops from predators. A Kuna farm contains many useful plant species, including fruit trees, staple crops, medicinal plants and plants that yield dyes for traditional festivals and cosmetics for women. They do not raise cattle, so farmers are able to leave their farmland idle between plantings for four to ten years before returning to farm them again for two or three years. Foreign grasses introduced to stabilize erosion in the Panama Canal and common elsewhere in Panama, also have not been introduced onto traditional Kuna farm land. These foreign grasses affect the regeneration of secondary forest and render extensive areas useless.

The Kuna political system is very organized and strong. Gathering sessions are held at night and presided over by a governing body of three chiefs, a handful of official interpreters, village elders, and politically active younger men. Village business is discussed, resolved, people are lectured on morality and the Kuna world view is taught. The teaching is presented through long narrative chants belonging to the tradition known as "the way of the Great Father". This tradition chronicles the composite history of the Kuna people, and depicts the workings of the cosmos. The narrative chants describe real places in the forest, the coastal estuaries, the appearance and behavior of animals, the germination and growth cycle of plants, and other natural phenomena. The chants and speeches of the sessions are filled with references to the natural environment and the need to protect it from harm.

The Kuna first encountered Western civilization in 1920. In the attempt to "civilize" the Indian, taboos and attitudes of respect toward nature started to become replaced by an opinion in which everything that is good can be bought or sold. Because of this, the Kuna succeeded in removing mass amounts of natural resources in exchange for money. Hunting was done indiscriminately, and turtles and lobsters were in serious danger of extinction by the late 60's. If the Kuna continued to participate in these activities, their ecosystem would be degraded beyond the point of redemption within a few years. Western education also succeeded in eroding the Kuna view of the world. Schools taught students to be ashamed of their culture. They were told the Kuna language was a lowly "dialect" and education would prepare them for a more "civilized" life. Traditional history and rituals were regarded as primitive superstitions. Because of the negative portrayal of Kuna life, some youngsters were unwilling to listen to hours of chants in order to learn traditions. They were even less willing to learn the curing chants which contained the most secret and profound knowledge: how to identify plants and animals, the behaviour of animals, and the yearly cycles of the rivers. In order for Kuna youth to understand traditional views of the world, a thorough knowledge of the forest was imperative. This was a time when the Kuna culture was seriously endangered. If it disappeared, would they continue to treat the Earth and all of its creatures with the same respect?

Attitudes and practices toward nature have changed over the past 20 years and many Kuna with high school and University level education are beginning to rediscover their cultural roots. Others leave and move to Panama City in search of better opportunities. Those who have stayed are making a difference. For example, traditional history is being introduced into school curriculums, and special buildings are being erected for ritual purposes. The Kuna have perceived the changes in their surroundings and are clear on the need to maintain equilibrium as they move into the future. They have considerable knowledge of their natural environment, and under conditions of change they are by far the best conservationists in the region.

Kuna Park

When landless peasants from the interior of Panama continued to encroach upon Kuna land, large areas that were once lush vegetation become desolate. If this process was not stopped, it would help complete the destruction of the world's tropical rain forests. Fortunately, the Kuna saw their land disappearing and did something about it. They did not need scientists to tell them what happened when tropical forest was cut down. They had seen it firsthand and were saddened. The Kuna set aside a large piece of virgin rainforest for management and strict supervision, and became the first indigenous group in Latin America to do something like this.

The nature reserve, Kuna Park, was established in 1983. It is a chunk of virgin rainforest about 60,000 hectares under the management of a society that has a spiritual based respect for nature. Different management zones divide the reserve, and certain activities are allowed in each.

The establishment of Kuna Yala was remarkable, but it is not without flaws. A population increase is putting great strain on abundant natural resources because traditional horticulture can only support small populations. Management plans for Kuna Park address these and other problems, but with lack of funds and personnel, action is restricted.

Through all of the hardships faced, the Kuna have showed the world how important indigenous knowledge is. They have been successful in keeping their cultural autonomy intact and have proved culture is a strong basis for maintaining a balanced ecosystem and the sustainable use of natural resources.

The Eskimo has survived further North than any other indigenous group. They survive through physical strength, endurance and intelligence. Living in harmony with the harsh environment of the Arctic is hard, and this hardship is their heritage. The Arctic does not provide the climate, flora, fauna, running water and other benefits of living in tropical climates, but it supports life. New-age technology has found its place in the lives of many Arctic peoples, but without traditional knowledge of subsistence, life in the Arctic is near impossible.

The Iñupiat are a group of Eskimo in Arctic Alaska, mainly on Point Barrow. They, like other indigenous groups, have strong views on the Earth and how it should be utilized. Their main nutritional subsistence comes from the bowhead whale and whale hunting is seen as a very important task. It underlies their cultural heritage and rightly so. The whale is one of the largest mammals found in water and even with new-age technology, hunting in semi-frozen water is difficult. The bowhead whale has provided food and resources for the Iñupiat for thousands of years. The blubber provides protein rich food for the community, and the oil is used for light and heat. Skin is dried and made into clothing and other material items. If catastrophes occur and the bowhead whale migration course is altered, a main food and resource supply for the Iñupiat is gone, and cultural identity is weakened.

The Eskimo religion is a system of taboos concerned with spirits that are believed to control the food supply. They see the Universe as a place where various supernatural forces are hostile toward human beings. By ritual and magic, the Iñupiat are able to influence these supernatural forces to benefit them. The weather, food supply, and protection against illness are influenced from the use of charms, amulets, magical formulas, the observance of taboos, and the practice of sorcery. All Iñupiat have access to supernatural powers, but some are considered to be especially endowed. With proper training these people are known as practicing shaman. Shaman are able to contact supernatural forces and help in establishing spiritual harmony between a whaling captain and the bowhead. They are directly involved in the hunting, but do not reveal their powers to other members of the whaling crew. Shaman know where the whales are to be found and only disclose this information by pointing and informing the crew of where the whales are. Whaling ceremonies, and festivals are held to honour this great animal, and many elegant artifacts are created.

The Iñupiat rely on the high meat and oil content of the bowhead whale for survival. If it wasn't for the bowhead whale, more time would be spent hunting small game. The average bowhead whale weighs about one ton per foot and can reach up to 60 feet. It is rich in oil and baleen; slow moving, easy to catch; and floats when killed which allows for easy capture. The entire bowhead whale carcass is used. Once slain, the dead body is brought onto shore and cut up. The meat is divided among relatives and friends of the whaling crew. Meat is stored in ice cellars for use during winter darkness months when resources are scarce. The bones, teeth, and baleen are used for sleds, house beams, artifacts and many other purposes. Bowhead whale baleen plates are very long, some reaching up to 12 feet or more in length, and each bowhead whale contains around 600! The bowhead also supplies great amounts of oil. Around 100 barrels of oil per animal is obtained. This oil also provides food and fuel for the Iñupiat. The bowhead whale is a very important resource for the Iñupiat and if migration course is altered many starve.

The bowhead whale is a significant part of Iñupiat life and dominates many legends and festivals. Before the whaling season, all hunters undergo strict preparation. During winter darkness months, there is great talk of whales and whaling. When daylight returns whaling preparations become intensified. There is a belief that no clothing that has been worn previously during hunting can be worn, so new clothing is made by the wives of the crew. Traditional tools were hand made during winter months, and usually made reference to the bowhead. Once conditions were right, the whaling crew spent four days in seclusion. Strict taboos prevented conversation, sexual relations, and consumption of certain foods. The crew was solemn during this time thinking about the whales. A member of the crew who owned special whaling songs would sing. This was usually a practicing shaman. When the four days had elapsed, the crew feasted. After the feast the crew departed to the whaling camp out on the ice. The end of the whaling season was marked by a great festival in which the whole community participated.

When the whaling tradition expanded to include the non-Eskimo beginning in the mid 19th century, traditional norms, unknown to the non-Eskimo were disregarded and over hunting resulted. For example, before commercial whaling harpoons and lances were used, but the dart and shoulder gun replaced these traditional tools completley by the end of the 19th century. Also the desire for profit was so great by these outsiders that taboos and outspoken concerns from Eskimo were disregarded and hunting continued. As the bowhead whale population decreased, walrus was hunted. The over hunting of sea mammals resulted in starvation and even death for many Eskimo. Resources are limited in the Arctic, and if not controlled, populations disappear. As the whaling tradition brought more non-native people to the Arctic region, Point Barrow's population grew considerably, and modernization followed. The Iñupiat culture, however, was only moderately influenced. The wage economy made its presence in 1940, but traditional hunting still held high prestige. This was evident when male Iñupiat were offered wage-paying jobs. They did not accept unless time was given off for hunting and fishing. They rejected the theory held by many non-natives that wage labor was the ideal form of economic enterprise to be pursued whenever given the chance.

In the late 70's, restrictions were placed on bowhead whale hunting. This greatly angered the Iñupiat. Whaling was the basic subsistence of life. It underlies their cultural heritage. Arguments were made against the restrictions. Whale hunting was a human right, and no constraints should be placed by any national or international organization. Another estimate of the bowhead whale population was taken, and realized the population was actually ten times larger than the previous estimate. This incorrect estimate of the bowhead population allowed for the continuance of traditional hunting.

Arctic Alaska contains many non-renewable resources. The discovery of petroleum in 1967 was huge for many oil companies. Economic advantages for the native Alaskans were generous, but increased development also increased the likelihood of an oil spill. If so, the migration course of the bowhead and other sea mammals would be altered. Great amounts of resources lost. Another concern of native Alaskans was the fate of their land. Would the oil companies end up controlling Alaska? Much debate over how to develop Alaska was seen, and the majority were not in favor of development. Land ownership also heated the debate. Talk of share holding for the natives was an option, but they strongly believed the land was something to be shared, not individually owned. The wildlife and resources were things on which they could depend on. It provided culture and an economic bond between generations. As long as the land and the people who lived off it were one, culture would survive. An agreement made in 1971, declared that approximately one-ninth of the state belonged to the natives.

The combined efforts of native Alaskans has had a great impact on the future of the state. With increasing population, the Iñupiat, in particular, have not ceased any traditional practices. A combination of Western culture with their own has taken place, but cultural identity is still strong. Whaling has been a basic subsistence for them for thousands of years. It is a cultural stimulant and will continue to be for many generations.

Written by Aislynn Griffin

Text edited by Kim Nichols, Argelis Roman and Marsha Stinik

Icons and maps by Aislynn Griffin

Photos courtesy of: National Anthropological Archives- Smithsonian Institution- photographer Paul H. Allen, Amazonian Cosmos: The Sexual and Religious Symbolism of the Tukano Indians- photographer Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, and Steven Lorring

Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History

Smithsonian Biodiversity Programs

Arctic Studies Center

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